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No one
can overlook the diversities and distinctions that mark
our world. Differences are seen in the lower forms of
life as well as in the higher level of human life. Among
the human beings the racial, cultural, educational,
religious, economic and political differences are so
obvious that one tends to forget the underlying unity.
But the distinctions are not meant to create disparity
among the members belonging to any particular class. In
the dynamic struggle for existence, the differences are
meant to yield harmony, co-operation and mutual
enhancement.
In this
paper, I propose to bring in the various aspects in the
Hindu tradition which have served as guiding principles
for the promotion of justice and peace in the Indian
society.
The
Concept of ‘Rita’:
Rig
Veda (1200 BCE) the oldest text of Hinduism contains a
concept called ‘Rita’ which signifies the concept ‘order
and justice’. The Vedic notion of ‘rita’ stands for the
physical and moral order of the universe. It also
denotes the universal harmony in which all things in the
world have a proper place and function. The Vedic gods
are said to be guardians of ‘rita’ (goparitasya
xksi_rL;) and practisers of ‘rita’ (ritayuh
_rk;q%).
The gods are said to follow ‘rita’ in their own lives
and they also ensure this eternal law of justice and
order is followed in the world.
The god Varuna whose eyes are symbolically described as
the sun, watches over the human beings and the god is
said to reward the doers of good actions and punish
those who perpetrate evil deeds.
The
Notion of ‘Anrita’:
The Rig
Veda also contains another word ‘anrita’ which suggests
the idea that improper action leads to the
disintegration of the universe into unreality or
non-being. The implication here is that in the Vedic
literature the word ‘rita’ contains ontological
significance, i.e. being arises out of proper/ right
activity while improper action leads to non-being. This
ontological aspect leads to the normative notion that in
the ‘Samhita’ literature (the first section of the
Vedas) ‘rita’ is the system of activity that guides the
world in such a way that the eternal order of the world
is not violated. In short, the law of ‘rita’ could be
described as the law of truth, righteousness and
justice.
In line
with the concept ‘rita’, the world-view of the Vedic
times (1500-900 BCE) was based on an intuitive
perception of reality in its totality and
inter-dependence. The power that preserves this ontic
unity of reality is ‘rita’ (Rig Veda 1:24:8; 10:133:6).
Rita is the cause of integration in human person,
harmony in society and order in the universe. By
attuning oneself with the ‘rita’ of the cosmic totality,
one gets liberated from the ambiguities of life. The
concept of ‘rita’, thus, points to an integrated
attitude to all aspects of life: ‘vyashti’ (the individual), ‘samashti’
(the
human society) and ‘srishti’
(the nature). The Vedic optimism is not
therefore anthropological but on the whole cosmological.
It starts from a more holistic perspective which views
humans and cosmos as a dynamic unity in which both are
engaged in the very existence of the universe.
The
Concept of ‘Dharma’:
In the
course of time, the concept of ‘rita’ evolved into
another concept known as ‘dharma’. The word ‘dharma’ is
derived from the Sanskrit root ‘dhri’ which means ‘to
sustain’, ‘to support’, ‘to uphold’.
‘Dharma’ has different shades of meaning. ‘Dharma’ meant
that principle which upheld or protected the individual
and society. Thus it is ‘dharma’ which makes it possible
for people to live and function harmoniously in their
society by fulfilling themselves and at the same time
contributing to the well-being of the society at large.
‘Dharma’ is the essential foundation of this fleeting
universe or the basis of things in general and thus
signifies truth. ‘Dharmo vishvasya jagatah pratishtha’. It also means one’s
duty, responsibility and thereby moral obligation.
‘Dharma’ is that which is right, virtuous, meritorious
and accordingly ethical.
‘Dharma’ designates the universal order, the natural law
or the uniform norm according to which the whole world
runs its course.
‘Dharanadharmamityahuh dharmo dharayate prajah !
Yat
syat dharanasamyuktam sa dharma iti nischaya !!
(Mahabharat, Karna Parva 69: 59)
‘Dharma’ is that which upholds all and keeps all living
beings together. The chief charactistic of dharma is to
bind everything into harmony.
‘Loka
yatrarthameveha dharmasya niyamah kritah !
Ubhayatra sukhodarkah iha caiva paratra ca’ !!
(Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Ch. 159)
‘Dharma’ is meant to assist the humankind in its
evolution through life. Observance of ‘dharma’ in one’s
life results in temporal prosperity and spiritual bliss
in the life-after.
According to Hindu Scriptures, establishing ‘dharma’ is
a process of liberation. ‘Adharma’ which is the opposite
of dharma is the enslavement to our greed and
selfishness, to violence and all that is evil.
Ignorance, degradation, unhygienic surroundings,
non-nutritional food, total lack of skills, social
exploitation, cruelty, discrimination and abject poverty
are some of the signs of the growth of adharma in
society.
‘Dharma’ is a process of liberation from all evil forces
in society.
By the
end of second century BCE, the term ‘dharma’ came to
mean the sum total of one’s obligations by which one
‘fits in’ with the natural and particularly the social
world. This is especially pertinent in regard to the
duties determined by one’s social class (‘varna’)
and the stage of life (‘ashrama’).
From this particular period onwards the justice and
righteousness in the society was promoted through the
observance of ‘varna dharma’
and ‘ashrama dharma’.
According to Tantra Vartika, ‘dharma’ consists of doing
the duties of one’s own ‘varna’/ caste and the
‘ashrama’/ state of life to which one belongs.
Stratification of the Society
The
sage Manu made a study of the society of his time with
regard to the division of labour.
All the members in the society were engaged in some
particular work that suited to their physical and mental
capacities. Thus Manu could classify the people into
four broad groups which came to be known as four
classes: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. The
Brahmins were those who engaged in the intellectual
pursuit and thereby preserved and promoted the existing
volume of knowledge in the society. Some of them also
functioned as priests who ensured the wellbeing of the
society by securing the good will of the gods and
goddesses through rituals and sacrifices. The second
group known as Kshatriyas or the warrior class who
secured the law and order in the society. The third
group, Vaishyas, attended to the economic needs of the
people. They looked after the production and
distribution of the material goods for the society. Then
came the fourth group of people, the Sudras, who were
the unskilled labourers. These provided the much needed
manual and other services to the above mentioned three
classes by assisting them to carry out their functions
efficiently. These groupings were made on the lines of
the natural tendencies exhibited by different members of
the society. In its original vision, these four classes
were to carry out their respective duties so as to make
the society a prosperous whole. The distinctions of
duties were never meant to discriminate people. All the
members in the society get an opportunity to make their
contribution to the life of the society according to
their physical and psychological dispositions. The
common wellbeing of the society was uppermost in the
mind of the sage Manu.
The
four Ashramas
An
individual in his/ her life goes through four different
stages (ashramas). These are the stages of a student,
householder, wanderer (extra domum) and an intense
seeker of salvation (Brahmacarya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha
and Sanyasa
. Each stage of
life has its own specific set of duties which an
individual is expected to fulfill. A ‘brahmacari’
(student) ought to study diligently in order to acquire
and develop the existing volume of knowledge. A
‘grihastha’ (householder) ensures the continuation of
generations by establishing a family and nurturing the
young ones. He also provides for all the common welfare
programmes in the society. It is the ‘grihastha’ who
produces wealth in the society through his/her
industrious efforts and supports the other three
‘ashramas’. As all the creatures depend on the air for
their survival, so, too, the rest three stages/
‘ashramas’ of life depend on the ‘grihastha’ for their
upkeep. The ‘vanaprastha’ (wanderer) is one who entrusts
the responsibilities of the household affairs to the
grown-up sons and daughters and moves about in the
society as he/ she is free of family-responsibilities.
He shares his knowledge and wisdom to those householders
who approach him for advice on various problems in life.
Some may choose to remain at home but do not undertake
any domestic responsibility. A ‘sanyasi’ (renunciant)
intently seeks his/her personal liberation through a
life of meditation and homeless asceticism.
It is
important to note that the various obligations incumbent
on members of the different ‘varnas’ and ‘ashramas’
mutually support each other and that an imperfect
performance of one’s responsibilities harms the society
as a whole. Moral obligations are specific to each
‘varna’ and ‘ashrama’. An individual ought to fulfill
them in his/ her life without faltering. Each individual
has a unique place in the society; and his/ her role is
irreplaceable. So Bhagavad Gita reminds each individual
regarding the importance of carrying out one’s own
duties in life. “It is better to perform one’s own
obligations (swadharma) even poorly than to do another’s
duty well.” (Bhagavad Gita 3:35)
‘Sreyan
swadharmo vigunah paradharmat swanushthitat
Swadharme nidhanam sreyah pardharmo bhayavahah’.
‘Sadharana
Dharma’ or ‘Varnashrama Dharma’:
‘Sadharana dharma’ are those virtues which are to be
cultivated by all despite their class/ caste or stage in
life. The practice of these virtues will contribute to
the human face of the society. Brihaspati enumerates the
following virtues in the list of ‘Sadharana dharma’:
Daya (kindness = a feeling of duty to save a friend or
foe from troubles), Kshama (patience = fortitude in all
kinds of difficulties), Anasuya (the qualities of
appreciating others’ virtues and absence of elation at
others’ faults), Sauca (purity = avoidance of vices and
strict adherence to one’s caste duties), Aspriha
(contentment with what little one may have and want of
jealousy at others’ prosperity).
Vishnu adds Satya (truthfulness for the good of all),
Dama/ mind-control and Indriya-nigraha/ sense-control
to this list.
Four
Purusharthas:
The
Hindu thinkers evolved a scheme of human ends (purusharthas);
they are the four goals in one’s life. They are ‘dharma’
(righteousness), ‘artha’ (wealth), ‘kama’ (pleasure) and
‘moksha’ (final liberation/ salvation of soul). All the
different aspects of life are integrated in this scheme.
‘Artha and Kama’ (wealth and pleasure) are legitimate
needs and desires of human beings. But they are to be
acquired only in accordance with ‘Dharma’ or
righteousness. To the extent one makes use of
unrighteous or immoral ways to acquire wealth and
pleasure, one causes discontentment, deprivation and
injustice in the society. ‘Moksha’/ salvation is the
supreme end of human life. “All the systems of the
Indian Philosophical traditions consider ‘moksha’ as the
central theme and the ultimate value”.
All the values of life like truth, beauty, goodness and
morality converge in moksha. Every human action on a
person should contribute its share in advancing his/
her soul to this spiritual goal.
Insistence on Duty
In the
Indian Ethics, the watch word is ‘devotion to one’s
duties’ rather than assertion of one’s rights.
Performance of one’s duty ensures the smooth running of
the society and indirectly everyone’s rights are taken
care of:
‘Karmanyevadhikaraste ma phaleshu kadachana’ (Bhagavad
Gita 2:47).
(= One
ought to keep one’s eyes fixed upon one’s own duties and
never on the fruits or advantages that might accrue
through that action.) Much of the unjust situations in
the society are due to dereliction or failure to carry
out one’s obligations conscientiously.
The
Motif of ‘Avatar’ or Incarnation:
The two
great epics of India, Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well
as the Puranas explain the story of gods and their
‘avataras’ (incarnations) in the world with a purpose of
re-establishing righteousness which was violated by a
section of people.
‘Yada
yada hi dharmasya glanirbhavati Bharata
Abhyuddhanamaharmasya tadatmanam srijamyaham
Paritranaya sadhunam vinashaya ca dushkritam
Dharma
sansthapanarthaya sambhavami yuge yuge.’ (Bhagavad
Gita 4:7-8)
Whenever there is a decline of virtue and increase of
vice on earth, the Divine Reality manifests itself. For
the protection of the good people and for the
destruction of the evil-doers and to re-establish
virtuous living on earth, the Lord manifests himself.
Mahabharata is the story of Divine intervention
(incarnation) of the Supreme Lord Vishnu in the form of
King Krishna, so as to protect the aggrieved party of
Pandavas and to punish the Kauravas for their injustice
and greed for political power.
‘Aham Brahmasmi’:
The
high point of Upanishadic philosophy (9thc.
BCE) can be described in that Vedic formula, ‘Aham
Brahmasmi’. The Vedic seers realized that the spiritual
principle deep within each individual person is
identical with the Ultimate Cause of the universe.
The goal of one’s spiritual pursuit would be to
experience this truth of identity. This is called
‘moksha’ or final salvation of a soul. The Hindu
philosophy seeks to rise above human sufferings both
physical and moral in the state of ‘moksha’. The concept
‘moksha’ is that state of release from all sufferings,
the consequences resulting from our actions (‘karma
phala’) and that which leads a human soul to its
ultimate fulfillment. When the human soul realizes its
oneness with the Ultimate Reality, then all distinctions
of caste, creed, family and lineage would be of no
consequence. While on earth a human person is said to be
under the cover of existential ignorance (‘paurusha
ajnana’). It means we do not have a proper
understanding of the reality.
So we are led to sinful deeds. (‘Ajnanenavritam jnanam
tena muhyanti jantavah’: Bhagavad Gita 5:15). Deeds of
oppression, exploitation and cruelty are all due to our
ignorance regarding the reality. Removal of this
existential ignorance will produce within us a
compassionate heart that would respect every other human
person.
The
Common Weal and the Universal Family:
The
following mantra from the Rig Veda exhorts people from
all walks of life and status to join hands with others
so as to realize the dream of common welfare. ‘Om
ajyeshthaso akanishthasa ethe sambhratharo vavridhuh
saubhanghaya’. (= The elders and the youth, the great and the
small, the elite and the lower class are all brothers
and sisters; all should move together in the society so
as to bring about collective prosperity.)
‘Om
sahanavavatu sahanau bhunaktu, saha viryam karvavahai!
Tejasvinavadhitamastu, ma vidveshavahai ! Om shantih,
shantih, shantih.’ (Taittirya Upanishad, Brahmananda
Valli, Anuvak 1)
(= Let
God protect all of us; may god make us enjoy life
together; let us acquire power and knowledge together;
and let us not ever hate each other.)
From
the ancient times the following verse was a part of the
Hindu moral education. This is known as the exalted
ideal of ‘Vasudhaiva kutumbakam’/ Universal family:
‘Ayam
nijah paro vethi ganana laghu chetasam
Udara
charitanam tu vasudhaiva kutumbakam’.
(= A
broadminded person looks upon the whole world as his/
her own family. One who is narrow-minded makes
distinctions between what belongs to oneself and that
which is others and is unable to find one’s
inter-relatedness with all. Let us stand up as one
humanity, one universal family.) When we realize that
all the peoples of the earth belong to the same family,
then the artificial boundaries that divide human beings
would begin to fade away. The economic, racial,
intellectual and gender differences which segregate
peoples would be treated as merely insignificant.
The
Vedic seers of India considered themselves the sons of
the mother-earth and thought of this planet, earth, as
the mother of all those creatures that flourish upon the
earth. ‘Mata bhumih putroham prithivyah’(Atharva Veda
12:1:12). A logical
conclusion to this belief would be that one is to treat
others as sisters and brothers.
Gradation of Consciousness
The
whole world of beings is nothing but a gradation of
consciousness. Human beings have greater degree of
consciousness compared to animals and birds. The
consciousness in the plant life is said to be dormant.
It is believed that the objects like stones there is the
possibility of consciousness; but the consciousness is
said to be unmanifested.
a)
‘Purna Chetana’: developed consciousness as in human
beings.
b)
‘Chetana’: not so fully developed consciousness as in
beings like animals and birds.
c)
‘Sushupta Chetana’: consciousness which is said to be
dormant as in plants and trees.
d)
‘Aprakat Chetana’: consciousness that is unmanifested as
in stones, water, air etc.
This
gradation makes us, human beings, realize that we are
directly linked to all other beings. Our privileged
position as those who possess fully developed
consciousness entails certain responsibility of caring
and guidance towards the lower grades of creation. Our
attitude towards the lower forms of life should not be
one of domination and arrogance but that of compassion
which permits the rest of creation to co-exist with us.
It is nothing but a lesson of respect towards the rest
of the created world. The tendency of exploitation of
nature would be a serious sin on this account.
Cosmocentrism and Inter-connectedness
From
all that we said above, we can say that the Hindu
tradition is cosmocentric rather than anthropocentric.
It puts the cosmos at the very centre of reality. Hence
the Hindu traditions are concerned about the welfare of
all beings which includes the humans. Hindus thus often
express their commitment to wholeness. Hinduism with its
sense of the unity and sacredness of all beings can make
a unique contribution to ecological justice. The
world-view of the Hindu is built on the fundamental
metaphor of “wholeness and organic inter-connectedness”.
Wholeness connotes that the whole of reality is one
(monism: the whole world is the spontaneous unfolding of
the supra-sensible First Cause) and ‘organic
inter-connectedness’ means that there is interconnection
between all the things in the universe and that it is of
an organic (internal) nature. The Hindu scriptures, as a
whole, invite people to live a just life, loving and
nurturing other humans and living beings (Bhagavad
Puranas 1:2:13,14).
Prayer for Peace
Most of
the Vedic rituals end with a prayer for ‘shanti’ or
peace (‘Om Shantih! Shantih! Shantih!’ – it implies a
plea to God that let there be peace on land, upon sea,
in the forest and in the space). One can experience true
peace only when there is peace all around. Struggle or
turmoil in any part of the universe could adversely
affect our personal experience of peace.
Here I
would like to quote a very ancient prayer from the Hindu
tradition which speaks of a spiritual attitude which
could facilitate our efforts to bring about social
justice.
Sarvetra sukhinah santu
Sarve
santu niramayah
Sarve
bhadrani pashyantu
Ma
kaschit dhukka bhag bhavet.
(= O
Lord, let people everywhere be happy; may they be free
from all ailments; may all people chance to look upon
what is auspicious; let none come to share the sorrows
of this life.)
The
four Debts
In the
epic, Mahabharata, we come across the description of
four types of debts which an individual incurs during
his/ her lifetime. We are indebted to gods, parents,
teachers and fellow human beings (Deva rina, Pitri rina,
Guru rina and Manushya rina). ‘Rinaiscaturbhih Samyukta
jayante manava bhuvi’. One is indebted to the gods and
goddesses because they are responsible for the right
ordering of the various natural powers and rewarding our
efforts in the world. The humans expressed their
gratitude in the form of rituals and sacrifices. Again,
we are indebted to our parents for the gift of human
life. This debt has to be made good by passing on of
life or raising up children. Next, an individual is
indebted to his/ her teachers which could be repaid by
sharing one’s knowledge with the ignorant ones in the
society. The fourth debt is towards human-kind. In our
day-to-day life we receive so much help from our fellow
men and women. We are the beneficiaries of the
civilization built up by our ancestors who are no longer
with us. Often enough we find ourselves unable to repay
those persons who offered their help. But we could repay
that debt of gratitude to other members in the society
with whom we chance to interact. It is done mostly
through compassionate actions to those in need and also
refraining from cruelty and violent acts of any kind.
The
Mode of Greeting Others
The
common gesture of greeting among the Hindus is to fold
the hands and bow slightly before the other person. A
person would say, ‘Namaste’ while greeting the other and
it has a deeper meaning. ‘I bow to the divine within
you’. The Hindu scriptures uphold the value of human
dignity when it considers the human soul as a spark of
the divine fire (light). Constant awareness of this
thought would help us to remember the deeper worth of a
human person.
‘Lokasamgraha’:
Hinduism is one of the most social religions with its
concept of ‘lokasamgraha’/ world-order.
The learned should act without any attachment to the
fruit of their work with a desire to maintain the
world-order. The Bhagavad Gita invites the Hindu
devotees to perform detached action. This is called
‘Nishkama karma’. Without desiring the selfish
advantages from the actions, one must perform all the
duties in life with an equanimous mind. Humans who act
for the sake of dharma/ righteousness without attachment
to the fruit of the action, can attain the ultimate
spiritual fulfillment. Such actions are, in fact, their
collaboration with the creator Lord to preserve the
universe in its integrity according to God’s plan and
will. (Bhagavad Gita 3:20) “Going beyond
the Vedic concept of ritual actions, the Bhagavad Gita
gives a new dimension to dispassionate human action by
adding social responsibilities as an essential element
of ‘dharmic’ life”.
‘Ahimsa’/ Non-violence:
The
usual meaning of ‘ahimsa’ is non-killing. In a broader
sense this concept is understood as non-injury. Ahimsa
is conceived as the opposite of violence of any sort:
physical, mental, verbal, religious or moral. Hinduism
recommends the practice of ‘ahimsa’ in thought, speech
and action. According to it, even thinking ill of others
is ‘himsa’/ violence. One should not only commit ‘himsa’
himself/ herself nor permit ‘himsa’ /violence to take
place. Nothing permanent can be achieved by violence.
Mahatma Gandhi asserts that ‘ahimsa’ is natural to man.
When we survey the course of evolution we find that
although in the initial stages brute force appeared to
be dominant, the progress of evolution is towards
‘ahimsa’/ non-violence. Man’s/ woman’s true nature
consists in his/ her spiritual aspect. Humans as spirit
is essentially non-violent. The moment the spiritual
side is of man/woman is awakened, his/ her non-violent
nature becomes apparent. ‘Ahimsa’ is a difficult
discipline. It is easy to hate but it requires supreme
energy to love especially those who are our opponents.
Therefore Mahatma Gandhi says that non-violence is meant
for the strong and not for the weak.
Violence may have the appearance of strength, but it is
born out of fear and is therefore a sign of weakness.
The capacity to kill is not a sign of strength, the
strength to die is the real strength.
It is
true that non-violence requires extreme patience on the
part of one who is using this method, but this patience
is not a sign of inactivity, it is an expression of a
conscious and inner effort to force the so called
opponent to see and realize his/her own mistake. This is
why it is said that non-violence involves sacrifice and
suffering. One presupposition of conscious suffering is
that there must be a ‘love’ for even the opponent and
also a faith in the essential goodness present in
him/her. Thus ‘ahimsa’ is a sure tool to rectify the
injustice in the society.
‘Sarvodaya’:
‘Sarvodaya’ etymologically means the betterment of all/
progress of all.
The end of all activities, social or political, ought to
have a single goal: the upliftment of everybody. This
can be possible only when no individual is neglected or
overlooked. ‘Sarvodaya’ is based on the belief that
there is an essential unity behind everything. The
forces of disruption that create distinctions between
‘I’ and ‘thou’ are rooted in selfish considerations,
whereas the realization of oneness is the supreme
condition for the effective following of ethical
principles. It is true that a perfect realization of
oneness is not possible in this life, but true spiritual
life consists not in attaining the ideal, but in
constantly striving and aspiring for it.
To sum
up, I would like to compare the society to a train where
all the coaches move together towards its destination.
So, too, a society should take all sections of people in
its march towards the goal of progress and prosperity.
The society should see to it that no group is deprived
of their legitimate share in the prosperity of the wider
group. This is only possible if the society carefully
cultivates a moral pathway. The quintessence of all
moral teaching is: Paropakarah punyaya papaya
parapidanam. (= Virtue lies
in doing good to others and sin consists in doing harm
or causing injury to others). To promote justice and
peace in the society, one also needs to cultivate a
spiritual perspective to life:
Slokardhena pravaksyami yaduktam grantha kotibhih
Brahma
satyam jagan mithya jivo bramaiva naparah. (Vedanta
School)
(= I
shall sum up the teaching of innumerable texts: God is
the ultimate truth; the world merits only a relative
existence and is passing away into non-being. In the
last analysis, all the human souls are identical with
that Divinity; never distinct from It). The thought that
we all human beings at the deepest level are intimately
united to the Divinity without any distinction and that
this world has only a relative existence would help us
to overcome the illusion of differences and alienation
between men and women and live as members of a global
family.
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